Labeling theory Essay

Stereotypes are thoughts adopted about a person or a group of people that may or may not be true. In reality a stereotype does not really have a definition. Different people view stereotypes differently. Researchers and psychologists have different definitions what a stereotypes can actually be. Some people regard stereotypes as being a negative thing, might go as far as saying it is prejudice. This is because cultures label others differently. If a person does not understand a culture but sees a trend they assume that the whole culture must be that way. This is an example of what stereotyping means to most. Psychologists Yueh-Ting Lee and Charles Stangor have their own believes on stereotypes. They do not agree on what stereotyping is, but both add a valid explanation. Yueh-Ting Lee a professor from the Westfield State College is a psychologist that has researched and wrote about stereotypes in our cultures. He believes that stereotypes might be perceived as a negative thing because they involve generalizing a culture or person. Lee believes that stereotypes are far from the truth. He doesn’t believe that a person or culture can be generalized to one thing. The world is a big place that can be very unfamiliar to most people. People that have never traveled the world or seen many cultures do not truly understand these places. Most of the people in the world fall under this curious but unaware category. Lee believes that stereotypes are needed for these kinds of people. What better way to start understanding a culture then looking at the stereotypes? He believes that stereotypesare a starting point in understanding the different people and cultures. Stereotyping is a belief we use to categorize people, objects and events. Lee says that these stereotypes will help uncertain people deal with all the information about the vast cultures on earth. All this leads Lee to believe that stereotyping is a good and necessary way of obtaining opinions on people and cultures. Charles Stangor a psychologist from the University of Maryland College Park has his view on stereotypes. He does not share the same views as Lee in regards to stereotyping being a useful or good thing. Stangor leans more into the idea that people need to rate others in order to know where they stand. This is an aspect of stereotyping shared by many. The fact that one culture or person will generalize another culture or person into a group based on who they are and what they do. Stagnor believes that powerful people use stereotypes to exploit selected groups of people. There are many negative stereotypes that arise from people generalizing on one aspect of a person or culture. For example African Americans are labeled to be good athletes but portrayed not to be as smart as Asians or whites. Stagnor believes that is a manipulation, and that stereotypes cannot be true, therefore they cannot be used to judge a person or their culture. Stagnor believes that generalizing can lead to more serious things like racism, sexism, or other prejudice. Stereotypes cannot be labeled as a good thing. This planet has many different people, cultures, beliefs, and races. Every single human being is different than every other human. If this is all true then how can we label people into categories? A human is not something up for sale and cannot be labeled and shelved in a specific section. This is maybe true about whole groups of people from the same race or culture. Like Stagnor believes stereotyping leads people to become prejudice against others. Labeling a race into one category is racism in a sense. A common stereotype is that all African Americans are great athletes but not as smart as other cultures. This is viewed because a lot of them are professional athletes. Being athletic does not make someone less intelligent, or being smart does not mean someone cannot be an athlete. This is an example of viewing a race only through one lense. People will not be able to understand other cultures if they only see someone from one side. Lee argues that stereotypes will lead us to understand or just began understanding someone. What if someone takes these stereotypes and sticks to that idea about someone. This will lead people to generalize races and cultures into one idea. This will be a harmful stereotype because we will be unable to look past that one idea. Negative stereotyping will lead humans to be intolerable of other races and cultures. People must understand why someone different then themselves is the way they are. If a select group of people are labeled in some way we cannot label the whole race that way. We have to give the rest of that race a chance. The least we can do is to understand a race before we pass a judgment.

European Crisis

Meanwhile, it has greatly magnified its intensity as well as its scale; Italian, Portugal, and Spain have recently come its next victims after Greece and Ireland. An apt and practical remedy is what we desperately need at this time of harshness. In the scope of this essay, the three most commonly accepted solutions to the Crisis will be presented and discussed. Germany, the only European country having a growth in economy during the previous year, plays the central role in two of them. Greece, on the other hand, might also have the chance to resolve its shameful ‘legacy.Despite the diversity of routes and methods, all these strategy have the same objectives: save the Rezone from a possible break-up and bring prosperity back to the Continent. . Seeking for the cure Since the collapse of Greek economy in 2009, two bailout loan packages for this country, which valued ? ¬110 billion and ? ¬130 billion, respectively, have been signed off by European leaders. In addition, a ? ¬ 85 billion loan to Ireland and another ? ¬78 billion to Portugal were made shortly afterward.While these loans' expected effects are still miles away, its counter effect has been so obvious to Europe: the enormous burden borne by other members will pull even financially healthy countries back into crisis. Governments is on its way down. In the worst scenario, if Italian goes defaulted, the added bailout loan for the fourth largest economy in Europe is estimated to cost more than ? ¬1,000 billion, a terribly huge number which surpasses many countries' GAP and amounts to over a half of French GAP in 2011.Bailout now appears to be only a temporarily fire-fighting solution, because if things keep going on this way, the Rezone will, sooner or later, find it getting trapped in the vicious circle of crisis- bailout-more crisis. An ultimate rescue plan for the Rezone is now more desirable than ever before. One of the most concerned and most controversial proposals was about the Rebound' – a bond issued by the whole Rezone countries as an effort to share debts among members in a more comprehensive way.If exist, that new bond would be guaranteed by the confidence in the powerful economic engine of Germany. The risk premium on that bond would reduce significantly, which could translate into a lower interest rate and a more acceptable burden, whereas it would also be more attractive to investors than separate governmental bonds of Greece, Italian or Spain. In case the bonds grow to maturity, the peripheral countries would not have to bear the obligation of payment alone, as the whole region's economies would share that indebtedness.In brief, ‘Rebound' is a way of transferring the abundant wealth from rich countries to troubled countries which are in need of that money, and simultaneously, sharing the burden among Rezone members more equally. Of course, this requires a high level of solidarity and mutual trust within Europe, since it may turn the Rezone in to the most fiscally and politically cohesive union in the human history. The idea of ‘Rebound' was immediately in favor of new French President, Franà §ois Hollander, and MIFF President, Christine Laggard.These two French people know that, although always being considered the second largest economy in Europe, France is now at the edge of recession, due to its closely financial relationship with Greece and other peripheral countries (before the Crisis, France was Grace's largest creditor, holding nearly $60 billion Greek direct debts). ‘Rebound' appears to be the best solution for France to avoid the destructive orbit of crisis. However, Angela Marker and Germany did not find this idea interesting. From the very beginning, German people have blamed other countries' profligacy for the Crisis.They argued that they had always worked diligently, and paid one of the highest tax levels in the world, with the belief that these taxes would better off their social welfare, as it actually did. They were tired of watching their tax money dedicated to hopeless bailout loans to countries, which had pursued reckless expenditure policies. They simply did not want to take another chance with that so-called ‘Rebound', since it directly targeted at them as the main player, so they would, eventually, have to work and pay for most of the living of the whole region.The profound disagreement only exist on paper. Gary Silverman of Swordfish Research says Germany would only budge ‘at one minute to midnight if the alternative was a complete collapse of the system'. 3. The ‘Credit' plan On November 2011, Lord Wolfs, chief executive of retailer Next, launched a competition and offered a prize of IEEE,OHO for the best idea to get Europe out of the current situation. Many proposals had been submitted from all over the world, and the winning one was the entry of Roger Bottle and his team at Capital Economics.Their plan suggested that Greece and other countrie s which are currently at the edge f default should leave the Rezone and introduce a new currency. A ‘Credit'-a combination of ‘Greece' and ‘exit' implying the escape of Greece from the Rezone-is believed to be vital for the restructuring of Greek economy as well as for the stability of other countries' financial systems. According to this plan, the transformation process has to be prepared thoroughly and secretly, and the action must be carried out promptly and straightly without prior public announcement.Right after the introduction of the new currency, called the ‘drachma', the Greek government has to reclaim the conversion rate between Euro and drachma. An initial one-for-one rate would be appropriate and widely acceptable. For example, a book which used to cost ? ¬2 would now simply cost 2 drachmas. This would be helpful in avoiding confusion among the public, as well as reducing the ‘menu costs' in business transactions. In addition, people would probably want to withdraw their Euro holdings in banks because they have little confidence in the new drachma.Therefore, governmental controls are necessary to prevent a capital flight, which could instantly cause a vegetating collapse in Greek ailing bank industry. Until withdrawals in Euro and in drachma could be told apart, the whole withdrawing system, including banks and ATM, need to be shut down. In the next step, the Greek government could negotiate the redefinition of its Euro-denominated debts right after the transformation. Although the conversion rate appears to be understandable for the creditors, they would surely claim a substantial extra payment from Greece as the compensation for changing the terms of debt contracts.The strategic aim of this whole meticulous plan would only take its toll hourly later. As being issued by such a weak state as Greece, drachma would soon experience a devaluation compared to Euro, followed up by a high inflation rate. Inflation is exactl y what Greece currently needs. First, debts now denominated in drachma would significantly reduce in value, making them more likely to be repaid at a more acceptable cost for Greece. Additional, a high inflation rate meaner a lower real interest rate, which would stimulate borrowings and spending.Devaluation would also make Greek exports more competitive in the global market, which greatly contributes to the national income. Finally, according to macroeconomic theory, inflation could reduce the unemployment, and create more Jobs for a quarter of Greek labor force. Conundrums Greece is faced with, but will also assuage the burden to the rest of Europe. The regional stability will partly recover, and concerns about the health of Euro will probably be replaced by a slight increase in creditworthiness of Italian, Spain or Portugal.On its side, Germany can be relieved from the bad affects of the Crisis, as well as the duty of sharing Grace's debts. It can focus more on internal affairs a nd other peripheral countries. However, such a risky plan with perfect timing requirements would not happen without the nod and the intervention of Germany, Greek current main creditor. 4. The return of Deutsche Mark Another newly raised proposal suggests Germany exit the Rezone and reintroduce the Deutsche Mark (DAM). At the first glance, it seems to be inconceivable, as Germany is now considered the only power left which can save the Rezone from a complete collapse.However, there is a potential opportunity of reform lying beneath the contradiction. This plan states that Germany's exit would immediately weaken the Euro, and that event would create the crucial breathing space needed for other countries' self-renovate plans. The depreciation in Euro would have similar consequences as a ‘Credit'. It would make the real value of debts in Euro reduce, while increase Rezone countries' competitiveness in exporting, including France's and the Netherlands'.Despite of Germany's withdra wal these states would be more likely to stay, and their manufacturing industries would benefit a lot from a weaker Euro. This stimulation would become the main inspiration for an uprising of the hole monetary union and each of its members. As the regional economies foster, there would have a great demand of labor force, which would ultimately solve the issue of unemployment in troubled countries. Also, Spanish lower priced real estate would become a bargain for foreign investors, provided the Euros devaluation.That inflow of capital would be a precious resource for Spain to take necessary steps out of the Crisis. As opposed to the ‘Credit', supporters of this plan claims that Greek exit could surely result in uncontrollable panic for peripheral countries, which is followed by bank nuns, failures and a tremendous trend of escaping. Meanwhile, a strong nation like Germany could ‘execute a swift exit that would be over before anyone could panic'. Additional, if Germany exi ts, it would not have to act as secretly as Greece would do.It would simply start the process by issuing government bonds denominated in DAM, while still live up to all previous assets, liabilities or contracts in Euro. A transition period would be necessary for Germany to get rid of the old Euro currency, but it would be less shocking and less risky than a Greek redefinition. Although Germany would initially suffer a considerable decrease in exports, since the DAM, which is much stronger than the Euro, would make German goods more expensive, the German powerful economy could promptly revive shortly after the exit.This action might appear to be agonizing, but people believe that it would completely end the lingering pain of the Crisis. Polls conducted recently have pointed out that many German people will be happy if they can return to the old currency. Like Britain, although Germany would not be in the Rezone anymore, its important position in the soundness of European economy woul d not diminish. He region, Germany is currently the only nation that can use its exclusive prosperity to save the rest of Europe from the haunt of crisis.Alternatively, it may choose to abandon the Euro, return to its Deutsche Mark, and leave an adequately necessary space for the reform of other countries. Or it may even do nothing but watch Greek people get out of the union and take their chance with the drachma. The time left is not much. Spain is on the edge. Italian may be the next one. George Sorbs, the legendary investor, says that Germany has only three month to save both the Rezone and ‘a lost decade'. Whatever the decision of Germany is going to be, it must be made promptly and wisely enough.

Evolution of the Immune System

John Frelinger Dr. Travis Organic Evolution 30 April 2012 Evolution of the Immune System Animals are constantly bombarded by an immensely varied array of disease causing pathogens including bacteria, fungi, viruses and other parasites. The number of microbes living in the human body outnumber the actual human cells by a factor of 10, and for every single species of animal and plant on Earth, there are viruses that infect them. With the unrelenting threat of disease-causing pathogens all around us, and even within us, how can the constantly vulnerable organisms defend themselves?Evolution has provided an answer to this problem—the immune system. The immune system is a vastly complex orchestra of cells working together to help eliminate potentially harmful pathogens from the body. Some form of host defense is found in every multicellular organism, however there are myriad variations in the immune systems of different organisms. Vertebrates have evolved an acquired immune respons e, in which a specific immune system is activated to clear an infection that is initially controlled by a non-specific (innate) immune response.This highly adaptable system is important to the survival of vertebrate species. Surprisingly, however, 90% of animals (invertebrates) do not have this kind of response. Despite lacking a seemingly critical adaptation, invertebrates continue to survive and reproduce. Why does it appear necessary for vertebrates to have an acquired response in order to survive, but the more numerous invertebrate species do not? Research indicates that there is an evolutionary lineage of the immune system that stems from the split of invertebrates and vertebrates.Innate immunity, which is found in all animals, is assumed to be at the beginning of this evolutionary tree. After the diversification of species (vertebrates branching from invertebrates), mechanisms of immunity also diverged. In this paper I will first discuss the function of the innate immune syste m because of its older evolutionary history, followed by the adaptive immune response that evolved later in vertebrate lineages. I will then conclude by placing the development of the innate and adaptive immune system in an evolutionary context.Innate immunity is the first line of defense for an organism and is made up of elements that protect the organism from pathogens. Anatomical aspects such as skin act as an impermeable barrier to infectious pathogens. Chemical and biological factors, including anti-microbial peptides like defensins, are also used to inhibit bacterial growth and prevent colonization. Another immunological factor of the innate immune system are phagocytic cells (macrophages), which are cells that engulf and eliminate foreign pathogens.These cells operate using a variety of different and generalized receptors that recognize a broad range of molecular patterns expressed by pathogens that initiate phagocytosis. One such family of receptors, known as Toll-like Recep tors, recognizes common pathogen elements such as bacterial wall components or viral DNA sequences. This component is found in virtually every multicellular organism, ranging from sponges to humans (Muller and Muller 2003). Plants also express proteins that are very similar to toll-like receptors, indicating that this aspect of the innate immune system predates the divergence of plants and animals.The innate immune system is so valuable to an organism’s survival because it is always present and in many instances can prevent pathogen entry or replication. This, in turn, prevents a harmful infection from ever occurring inside the host. Although invertebrates do not have the acquired immune response, recent research has shown that their innate response is more complex than previously thought. Insects can activate their immune systems to remain in a higher state in order to prepare for a pathogen invasion.During bedbug mating, females are frequently injured in the process because males will stab a female to inject his sperm, infecting her with bacteria and exposing her to other potential infections. In response, females have evolved ways to enhance their immune system prior to mating in anticipation of pathogen invasion (Morrow and Arnqvist 2003). Bumblebees are capable of maintaining a heightened immune system in response to a prior pathogen invasion to aid in the prevention of future infections. Immunity such as this has been shown to pass down vertically to offspring, therefore increasing their fitness (Tyler et al. 006). Slugs have also evolved an interesting alternative response in the form of increased mutation rates of certain immune cell receptors, which allows their immune system to adapt to many foreign elements (Litman and Cooper 2007). While it is inherently different from the acquired immune response, this sensitive management of immune function was previously thought to be reserved as a characteristic of vertebrates and the adaptive immune res ponse. As vertebrates began to diverge and evolve from invertebrates, so too did the immune system.The new adaptive branch of the immune system originally conferred a new selective advantage for vertebrates because of its specificity and immense flexibility in recognizing new pathogens. The clonal selection theory, in which each lymphocyte clonally expresses a specific antigen receptor, can help explain how the immune system can express an extremely wide range of potential receptors capable of recognizing new pathogens. Lymphocytes are undifferentiated cells that ultimately become B-cells (Bone Marrow) or T-cells (Thymus) depending on where they migrate.B-cells possess a uniquely structured immunoglobulin molecule (antibodies exposed on outer surface) that recognizes and binds to a specific molecular counterpart. When a foreign antigen is bound to the antibody, it stimulates the replication of that specific B-cell with the aid of Helper T-cells, which enhance B-cell maturation. This process results in the clonal expansion of cells that recognize the original antigen and subsequent production of antibodies that help in the eradication of the pathogen. An important point of this process is that the pathogens select which lymphocytes expand.It also results in memory B-cells and T-cells that constitute a persistent immune memory for a particular antigen. This expanded pool of memory cells is activated upon a second exposure to the same pathogen, resulting in a much more rapid immune response to clear infection. Other types of T-cells are also produced during this process. For example, cytotoxic T-cells target and kill virally infected cells, while suppressor or regulatory T-cells are activated when the infectious pathogens are eliminated and signal the immune system to subside.Cells such as these also experience selective pressures–ones that react to self-tissue (and harm the host) would be selected against, while those that recognize pathogens would surviv e and replicate. The clonal selection theory addresses many aspects of vertebrate immunity, however, it does not explain all of the mysteries behind the variety of antibody generation. The sheer number of antibodies that can be produced and the finding that the acquired immune response can generate antibodies to manmade molecules that are not present in nature led scientists to explore how such diversity is generated.Research done by Susumu Tonegawa in the 1970’s indicated that B-cells have the ability to produce a huge number of antibodies due to a gene rearrangement process. B cells originally have many sets of gene segments (Variable, Diverse, and Joining) and over the course of its maturation reduce these segments to one of each type for the production of the antibody heavy chain. A similar process of gene rearrangement is involved for the production of the antibody light chain. The light chain and heavy chain proteins then assemble to form the complete antibody molecule that can specifically bind to an antigen.Two genes that are critical for this process to work are RAG1 and RAG2. These genes are known as recombination-activating genes and distinguish the vertebrate immune system from other lineages. These genes are critical to the process because they act as the excision and joining molecules that cut and knit back together the individual VDJ segments that make up the antibody. This results in the huge potential of diverse antibodies that can be produced—hundreds of millions of possible antibody types generated from a much smaller number of gene segments that can react with virtually any antigen.This sophisticated process may have originally been introduced by a mobile genetic element known as transposons. These transposable elements have the ability to excise themselves from one DNA sequence and incorporate themselves into another, very similar to the RAG1 and RAG2 gene functions. After the divergence of jawed and jawless vertebrates, a vi ral infection of the jawed lineage’s gametes may have introduced a transposon into their genome. (Thompson 1995). This may have provided the raw materials necessary to facilitate the development of adaptive immunity.The acquired response appears to have evolved from a single lineage because all vertebrates (excluding jawless fish) retain this RAG-mediated gene rearrangement system. The specificity of this kind of response may have been selected for because of its ability to recognize a diverse number of pathogens, but also because it could conserve more energy resources compared to the generalized defense of the innate response. The adaptive immune response is structured in such a way that it can respond to an almost infinite number of pathogens, while utilizing a relatively limited number of genes.Figure 1 illustrates a potential phylogeny based on some immune system adaptations previously discussed. Figure 1 (Reproduced from Litman and Cooper 2007). Although the vertebrate immune system is extremely adaptable to many potential threats, it is far from perfect. Epidemics such as the Bubonic Plague or the 1918 influenza killed millions of people. Similarly, when the Spanish colonized the New World, they also introduced pathogens that were devastating to the indigenous people.One of the major limitations of the acquired immune response is that it takes a relatively long time to respond after the initial exposure in order to be effective. This time is required because the lymphocytes must clonally expand before a pathogen can be eliminated. For example, in the case of the Native Americans, when they were exposed to the new pathogens, the infections spread to a portion of the population that was large enough to leave them unable to forage for food or to tend to the sick. As a result, it nearly wiped out the entire civilization.This limitation is significant as illustrated by these and many other historical epidemics. These difficulties have led scientists t o think more fully about the effectiveness of the vertebrate immune system. If the immune system has the potential to combat virtually any conceivable threat, why then can’t it always eliminate any potentially harmful pathogen? We also look to immune hypersensitivity and autoimmunity as potential drawbacks of the immune system, indicating further imperfections of the adaptation. When the immune system mistakenly targets self-tissue, it results in serious consequences for the organism.Concepts in evolutionary biology might help address these issues. In this context the immune system does not have to be inherently perfect by design because only some individuals of a population need to survive and reproduce for that lineage to continue. The variation introduced by the immune system generates the diversity necessary for a population to adapt to changing environmental pressures. As others have suggested, a zebra doesn’t have to outrun the lion, just the slowest member of th e herd (Hedrick 2004).The immune system is subjected to the same constraints as other characteristics in regards to natural selection. In this case even if a trait is not optimal, but helps the organism survive and reproduce, it will be selected for, regardless of any deleterious effects experienced post-reproduction. Many, but not all immunologists, believe the development of the adaptive immune system with gene rearrangement was a critical advance. It has been proposed that the development of the adaptive immune system was the â€Å"Big Bang† for the evolution of immune system (Travis 2009).This development might have also enabled the rapid expansion of vertebrates. Moreover, the idea that the adaptive immune system can generate receptors for molecules that are not yet present, makes it extremely flexible and has been called â€Å"forward thinking† (Travis 2009). Thus, while the immune system does not anticipate every change in organisms it is ready for them by const ructing a large repertoire of antigen specific receptors, which confers a big selective advantage. Others have suggested the adaptive immune system conserves resources, and thus is better than the innate system.In contrast, as noted earlier, invertebrates lack a fully functional adaptive immune system and are very successful. Moreover, others have argued that even if the immune system was an advantage, it was only temporary and short lived (Hedrick 2004). Another relevant issue deals with the concept of parasite and host co-evolution. This constant struggle is exemplified by a quote from Lewis Carroll’s â€Å"Through the Looking Glass†, â€Å"it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place†. This concept, originally introduced by Leigh Van Valen, has been termed the Red Queen hypothesis.According to this hypothesis, an improvement in fitness for one species will lead to a selective advantage for that species. However, since species are often coevo lving with one another, improvement in one species implies that it gains a competitive advantage over the other species, and thus has the potential to outcompete for shared resources. This means that fitness increase in one evolutionary system will tend to lead to fitness decrease in another system. The only way that a competing species can maintain its relative fitness is to improve on its own design.Although this theory was used to help explain the extinction of species and the evolution of sexual reproduction, it has been applied to many aspects of predator prey relationships including the development of the immune system. Because animals are constantly attacked by fast-adapting parasites, the host immune system cannot possibly gain an advantage over them. The evolution of the immune system is caused by the small advantages conferred as a result of variation in the recognition of pathogens.As suggested by Steven Hedrick, â€Å"by selecting for more elusive parasites, the immune system is ultimately the cause of its own necessity† (Hedrick 2004). Thus paradoxically, the immune system, since it places a strong selective pressure on pathogens and parasites, ultimately has become essential for vertebrates to survive. By placing selective pressure on parasites that can evolve much more rapidly than animals (due to their higher reproductive/mutation rate), it results in parasites that are increasingly more effective at infecting hosts of that species.In terms of the immune system, one strategy that parasites have developed is a means of altering their own antigens to become unrecognizable. In this way they escape the adaptive immune system by altering their structure. For example, trypanosomes can switch the major target antigen for antibodies, which they use as a strategy to extend the amount of time they reside in the host. This results in a more contagious host that will increase the spread of pathogens to new hosts (Stockdale et al. 2008).Similarly, be cause the HIV polymerase is very error prone with no proof reading mechanism, many mutations arise in the HIV proteins during its infection. While the adaptive immune system can make neutralizing antibodies, new variants arise that can no longer be recognized by the antibodies. These new variants have a selective advantage and escape, and thus the adaptive immune system  is always lagging behind. In terms of the host immune response, there is also an extremely high level  of polymorphism of major histocompatibility genes, which enable the population to respond to a wider array of antigens using T-cells.The benefit of this heterozygosity is that it allows the individual to respond to a wider variety of antigens. Moreover this diversity helps ensure that even though some individuals may perish, the particular pathogen will not be able to eliminate the entire population. Some infectious agents have even taken it a step further and evolved ways to utilize the host immune system to i ncrease their own fitness. For example, infections that result in pus filled cysts can be used to carry parasitic progeny and spread to new hosts when they burst.Even though this may help the host clear an infection, the pathogen can use this to increase its own fitness and infect more individuals. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) utilizes the host immune system by initially infecting macrophages, and subsequently T-cells, which the virus uses as a reservoir for reproduction and as a means to spread to many different tissues in the body (Orenstein 2001). It also serves the virus to target immune cells for infection because crippling the host immune response akes it easier for the virus to spread throughout the body and eventually to new hosts (due to the higher viral load). In this light, it is possible that invertebrates did not evolve the adaptive immune response because they may have never needed it. By lacking the ability to develop a â€Å"memory† for a particular pathogen, those pathogens did not evolve anti-immune mechanisms to counter the host immune response. An immune memory could lead to more devious pathogens and result in a more harmful infection in the future.This could have been a better strategy for invertebrates as it may have prevented the co-evolution of more virulent pathogens (Hedrick 2004). The immune system has a long evolutionary history in multicellular organisms. The innate immune system is a critical adaptation that helped these organisms survive the onslaught of parasites and pathogens. Vertebrates possess an adaptive immune response that allowed for the recognition of an almost infinite number of pathogenic antigens, however, it appears to have become a one-way road with the coevolution of pathogens.Once this adaptive system appeared in the vertebrate lineage, there was no going back. Because of the immense flexibility of the adaptive immune response, it places huge selective pressures on pathogens to constantly evolve new mechanisms of infecting hosts. Thus in the context of evolution, even with the incredible versatility of the adaptive immune system, it is likely there can not be an ultimate solution to infection by parasites only a new, perhaps unstable, equilibrium. Works Cited Hedrick, S. (2004). The Acquired Immune System: A Vantage from Beneath.Immunity 21, 607-615. Litman, G. and Cooper, M. (2007). Why Study the Evolution of Immunity? Nature Immunology 8, 547-548. Morrow, E. H. , and Arnqvist, G. (2003). Costly traumatic insemination and a female counter-adaptation in bed bugs. Proceedings of the Royal SocietyB: Biological Sciences. 270: 2377–2381 Muller, W. and Muller, I. (2003). Origin of the Metazoan Immune System: Identification of the Molecules and Their Functions in Sponge. Integrative and Comparative Biology 43, 281-292. Orenstein, J. (2001). The Macrophage in HIV Infection.Immunobiol. 204, 598- 602. Stockdale, C. , Swiderski, M. , Barry D. , and Richard McCulloch (2008). A ntigenic Variation in Trypanosoma brucei: Joining the DOTs. PLoS Biol 6. Thompson, C. B. (1995). New insights into V(D)J recombination and its role in the evolution of the immune system. Immunity 3, 531–539. Travis, John. (2009). â€Å"On the Origin of the Immune System†. Sciencemag Vol. 329. Tyler, E. , Adams, S. , and Mallon, E. (2006), An Immune Response in the Bumblebee,Bombus terrestris leads to increased food consumption. BMC Physiology 6.

Personal statement for university explaing why did I choose that

For university explaing why did I choose that university and course - Personal Statement Example pecialize in databases and data mining, because I am really interested in learning about how large datasets and huge chunks of information can be stored in and managed so quickly and efficiently. I would love to learn about new advancements in this field, and would like to become a talented professional in my future life. For me, computer science has changed the world like no other science. Why I chose the University of New Haven, Boston Post Road West Haven, is because it offered me graduation in computer science which I wanted to avail and start my career in. The university is a private, top-tier institution, and offers globally recognized experiential education. It offers highly qualified teachers. It helps the students in various means like in getting a tutor, scholarships, free-ships, stipends, internships, and etcetera. Special training courses are also held which enable the students to apply the knowledge

Week 5 discussion 1 and 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Week 5 discussion 1 and 2 - Essay Example A normal person of average neuropathy scores between three and six. An average non-psychopathic criminal scores of between 16 and 22. A criminal with antisocial personality scores between 22 and 26 while a serious psychopathic antisocial personality criminal scores between 26 and 29 (Snowden & Gray, 2011). The PC L-R’s twenty traits are grouped into two factors; factor one is described as true psychopathy traits, which describes the mental, psychological, and erosional state. They are eight traits that assess how an individual feels, mental status and thought process. Factor two traits are referred to as false psychopathy. The factor two traits describe an individual’s conducts, demeanor and activities. The traits assess antisocial, deviant behavior and lifestyle behavior (Barone, 2004). In as much as PC L-R is one of the most credible tools for assessment of psychopathy, it may not entirely address the nature of human behavior as behavior is influenced by social and cultural environment. In certain social settings, it is culturally ethical and acceptable to conduct activities like cattle rustling, which is not ethical in other communities. It would be inappropriate to apply the rating scale on people homogenously as it could have legal implication when an individual is found not guilty on an insanity defense. However, through the use of the PC L-R assessment, a rehabilitation mechanism could be developed and implemented effectively as a means of changing the dominant undesirable antisocial traits (Cooke et al., 2007). Serial murder is an unlawful homicide of more than two people, which is carried out systematically in a period of more than 30 days. Serial murder can occurs in a specific place or different locations, but appears to have similar motive. Serial killings bare similar characteristic, planned, and have a cooling off period between the killings. An example of serial murder is that of Ted Bundy,

Answer the question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 21

Answer the question - Essay Example It is therefore important that teachers embrace practical approach to learning through effective research to achieve the solutions to academic challenges and unjustified claims (Nell, 2011) Research findings are subject to temporal changes. This necessitates the construction of a paradigm in which temporal changes in scientific findings are factored into the initial findings to create coherence of knowledge (Nell, 2011).This provides teachers with an alternative to use other researches in the various fields with necessary shifts of paradigms to explicitly foster comprehensive understanding among learners. Essentially, no research proceeds without the influence of an initial course. Earlier researches provide basis to make inferences on current issues with necessary changes. Therefore, paradigms provide effective means through which coherence in research findings is attained without undue criticisms of the initial research. Scientific research is the fundamental driver of scientific progress, inventions, and innovations. It is important to create a smooth transition between research and its implementation. Research in itself is unable to cause the desired academic change without an effective implementation of the findings (Nell, 2011). Application of a theoretical claim in research is necessary whenever adequate research tools are made available. Research in essence provides a means through which theoretical knowledge finds justification. Human minds bear several unresolved doubts about the existence and changes in various aspects of life. It is therefore necessary that the perceptions of learners in a classroom set up be underscored by facts to justify the reality of such

Media exploretion Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Media exploretion - Assignment Example Under painting is a transparent oil sketch. Mostly it is made up of turpentine. Tonal ground is when the entire canvas is evenly applied with a single color which will be used as a shadow of the painting. Oil painting mostly engages the use of brush and canvas for painting as the major tools. Equipment is not necessarily available in this case but computers can be used to manipulate certain paintings due to the advancement in technology. There are several categories which are used in painting artwork. One of the categories of painting is through use of oil. There is also the use of water crayons as a means of painting. The techniques and processes for Painting Oil painting is one of the categories which is considered as a postmodern method of painting. Oil painting can further be divided into 3 categories which we shall describe how they all work. One form is the wet on wet, build up, and Open canvas technique. Wet on wet technique is a process which requires the artist to be well experienced and apt with painting techniques. The process of painting begins at least 3 days before the actual painting begins. There is need for the artist to have a clear knowledge on the color theory and how colors can be mixed. In addition to this, must be coherent with form development and greater expertise with brushwork. This is because the painting begins with light under painting which is referred to as an oil sketch. From this, the painting is expected to have established a composition of tone which is slowly built up as the process of painting progresses. Adjustments of the paint takes place through glazes which are also treated as an un-layered technique. Build up technique involves a layering process in which the light and bright colors are placed last in the painting. This is normally done when the other parts of the painting are dry. The texture of the light paint is highly influenced by the brushwork. Open Canvas technique

Data Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Data Analysis - Essay Example Every order contains one or more products; therefore, the association between the Purchase order class and Line product class is one or more. However, every product in Purchase order refers to only one product in Product. Therefore, the association between the Line product class and Product class is one to one. There will only one payment detail for every purchase order; therefore, the association between the Purchase order class and Payment detail class will be one to one. Figure 2 shows the relational model (Entity relationship diagram) for National Treasure Online Shop. Additional attributes as password, and email are included in Customer entity assuming that customer will register on website when he/she will make purchase first time so that for the next time the customer will only need to login for making any purchase with the website. PK and FK show the Primary key and foreign key in entity. Figure 3 shows the output of Query 1 that displays the list of product categories for National Treasure Online Shop. When Query 1 is executed, it displays the list of product categories that is Cards, Calendars, Books, and Diaries. This is the first thing that customer visiting on the website is presented on the website home page. Figure 4 shows the output of Query 2 that displays the list of product with product categories for National Treasure Online Shop. This query will be useful for displaying the product list based on product categories. Figure 5 shows the list of the customer visited the National Treasure Online Shop. Query 5 will display the list of the entire customer who had purchased any products or registered to the website as a customer. This query will be useful for selecting customer for any promotional offers or contests. Figure 7 shows the lists of product for any particular order that customer have made with National Treasure Online Shop. Query 5 will display the

Peer Review Feedback Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Peer Review Feedback - Essay Example It drew my attention to the article. The opening line, â€Å"I can remember the hunger I felt to obtain and share information as a child†, delivers the punch that is carried through in the opening paragraph. Another feature of your article is the detailed account of your various stages of transition presented in the work. Finally, I must say that you use simple words that make it easy to read and understand your work. Weaknesses The punch of the opening paragraphs is not felt in the later stages of the work. This reduces the attractiveness and readability of the work. There are two aspects here that I would like to point. The first is the style of writing makes the work appear disjointed. The flow is lacking. For example, you end one paragraph with â€Å"during this time, I obtained my son’s medical chart and reviewed it alone, and with health care professionals, while again using self taught research skills.† The next paragraph starts with â€Å"massage therapy career path, seemingly unrelated to the field of journalism, was full of more opportunities to collect information via research and interviewing†. There is lack of transition here. My last impression on weaknesses in the work is the lack of vivre le joi or the joy of living. You are dealing with a part of your life. I am sure you will agree that no life is worth without the essence of joy in it. It is not necessary to merely present the transition of your life as a set of data in research paper. Suggestions I do not feel I hold the privilege of making any suggestions for improving this work. Nevertheless, if may suggest there are three areas that I would address. The first aspect is reducing the size of the sentences. You use simple words, but the size of the sentences is large. The combination of simple words and simple sentences would make understanding of this work easy. I return to my criticism of the work for my next two suggestions. Use transition sentences between para graphs to help continuity in your work. The last suggestion lies in spicing up the work, such that you do convey joy in the life you led so far, and carry the hope that it goes further into your life. PORTFOLIO INTRODUCTION – MARTA IZER I have limited experience in doing a peer review. Therefore, I do not believe that I have much to contribute to your portfolio introduction. In my opinion it is a lovely piece of work. I just loved it. In case my observations help to make this portfolio introduction of yours even better, I believe I am the fortunate one. Any contribution of mine to this work of yours would be superfluous, without repeating that it is a good piece of writing. Strengths Your portfolio introduction has been constructed well, and written in a manner that makes for pleasant reading. Going through the contents has only made me relive my childhood and the transitions that have occurred in my life. You have written in such a style that the reader will be left with a t inge of nostalgia of the years gone by. Another strength in your piece of writing is the simple language that you have used. Simple words constructed into simple sentences have made the reading of this piece of writing easy to read and easy to assimilate. The flow in your writing style is another strength. There is no abrupt change in the direction o your flow of information. One paragraph melds into the other, and so there is no sense of jarring in the reading of the work. Weaknesses Since I like the piece of work it has been difficult for me to identify

Helping Students Find a Purpose for Their Education Essay Example for Free

Helping Students Find a Purpose for Their Education Essay It has been my observation that many of my best students became intrinsically motivated to put more effort into their education after they have decided on a career purpose. A work or career purpose or mission answers the following question: How do I want my career to benefit others? It is also important to identify who (the population) we want to benefit. An example of a work purpose statement is, â€Å"I want to help those who are sick or injured to heal and rehabilitate. † This statement does not contain a career title, but it provides guidance for exploring a variety of careers that can fulfill this purpose. For example a student with this purpose could explore a variety of careers such as nurse, doctor, physical therapist, nutritionist, athletic trainer, fitness trainer, engineer or inventor of products for persons with disabilities, etc. The career that they choose will depend on their capability and willingness to acquire the necessary skills, education, training and credentials. Ideally the career choice will be one that uses their best talents and is one they will enjoy doing. Do you ever share with students why you chose to work in the field of education? Students need to learn about different careers from adults who work in different career fields and to hear what motivated them to make their career choices. I teach college success courses and I used to wait until the end of my courses to get into career development, exploration and planning. Students did not think about a career purpose until the last week or two of my courses. Recently I started covering these ideas in the second week of my courses so that students would have a clear direction for their education much sooner. Having a career purpose can make their education relevant and is likely to generate the intrinsic motivation to study and learn. Students need to be provided with opportunities for career guidance from counselors, teachers and professors in high school and college. You do not need to be teaching college or career success courses to do this, but can weave in a few questions and ideas into other courses. Here are a few questions you can ask your students so that they can begin a process of self-reflection about their career purpose: 1. What purpose do you want to accomplish in your career? 2. What benefits do you want others to receive as a result of the work you do? 3. What specific populations of people do you want to help? 4. How do you want to contribute and make a positive difference for others? 5. If you were wealthy and chose to work what would you do? 6. What problem or need in the world would you most like to fill or solve? 7. If you knew you could not fail what type of work would you do? 8. What are some natural talents you would like to develop and use in a career to fulfill your work purpose? When we expect students who lack self-knowledge and a work purpose to choose a major and career, we are putting the cart before the horse. Identifying a purpose first will guide students into best career choices. If we help students to determine an appropriate career goal then they will also have a purpose for pursuing a good education

The IFAC code of ethics for profession accountants

The IFAC code of ethics for profession accountants Introduction Nowadays, independence is major issues to attain highest level of performances to meet the public interest requirement. (Messier et al, 2006) Therefore, International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) has its mission to provide consistently high quality of service in the public interest by continues establish and strengthen the worldwide economic development and enhancement the accountancy profession with harmonized standards. (ICEAW ¹, 2005)[Online].An IFAC Ethics Committee which also known as The International Ethics Standards Board for Accountants (IESBA) has been established by IFAC Board to develop the issues of the mission and therefore published the Code of Ethics for professional accountants to emphasize the independences and principle-based approach to its professional ethics. (IFAC ¹, 2010)[Online] The Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants (The Code) is guidance for professional accountants identify, evaluate and respond to threats in providing independent audit and assurance service. Independence in assurances services are always being discussed in the Code in terms of a principles-based approach which takes into account threats to independence, accepted safeguards and the public interest.(Rick Hayes et al,2005) It is very important since they implicitly set limit for unethical behaviour and provide guidance in auditing.( Gary Pflugrath,2007) IFAC code always focuses on the issues of independent. Auditing is virtually worthless without independent as it is referred as cornerstone of auditing. An auditors should unbiased, and unaffected by conflict of interest in their viewpoint to provide a true and fair view of the entitys audit report. (Brenda Porter, 2008) It is important to independent to avoid possible threats and access to confidential and sensitive information when carry out their work with professional and due care. Public always rely on the auditors knowledge, skills and expertise in order to form an independent opinion when providing assurance engagement. (ACCA ¹, no date)[Online] Main Report 2.1 The role of IFACs code of ethics is strengthening the independent of external auditors to provide reasonable assurance service. With comply with fundamental principles and the conceptual of framework, the Code can provides information that is more confidential and reliable in public practise while maintaining professional competence and independence. (Graham W.Cosserat, 2009) .These fundamental principles fulfil their obligation for public interest and achieve objective of accounting profession. The conceptual framework of professional conduct and ethics also provided to identify evaluate and respond to threats with compliance with the fundamental principles are not compromised. (ICAEW ¹, 2005)[Online]. The Code also prohibiting members from incompatible activities like allowing commission or brokerage that soliciting clients or encroaching upon other members work. (Emmanouil Dedoulis, 2006) For positive aspect, the code of ethics provides high quality standards and strong professional accounting to serve public interest in a transparent, efficient, and effective manner. Independence plays a vital role for truthfulness and confidentiality financial reporting to investor to serve public interest. (IFAC ², 2004) [Online]. As the public interest continually increase in demand, the revised Code of Ethics has been issued and maintain in principles-based approach to strengthen independent requirement. The revised code is regarding the ethical responsibilities of the auditors who encounter illegal acts and fraud by developing additional guidance. Newer safeguard also has been applied into the revised safeguard to provide guidance for more quality framework from professional accountants. (IFAC ³, 2008)[Online] The revised code is addressing relationships and previous and current interest which related to new entity that may affect independence. Relationship and interest may create significant threats that objectivity could be compromised. (IFACà ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ ´, 2009)[Online] Apart from that, Mr. George has point out that the Code also helps in facilitate the global harmonisations. (IFACà ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ µ, 2010)[Online].Global harmonisation is important because it is to reduce complexity and provides decisive strategic for future global capitals market. It provides greater confidence and sensitive in reliable and transparent information for individual companies. Therefore, it needs high quality accounting framework to develop the truly global set of the standards.(PWC,2007)[Online] Independence helps to provide high quality work which are meeting the information needs for capital market to allow the market operate efficiency, smoothly and effectively. This has improves the ability for investor and stakeholders to global basis to achieves substantial benefits from capitals market and lowers their risk and error of judgement. (ACCA ², 2006) [Online] On the other hand, the revised code of ethics has its negative side. It takes times to adopt the revised Code of ethics as all the professional accountants needs to absorb new information, knowledge, technical and skills in order to strengthen up the requirement of independent. It is also need to incur extra costs to provide training and preparation to adopt the newer information and requirement. Besides that, it needs to have extra communication for clearly understood all the requirement involving in revised Code of Ethics to minimise uncertainty and confusion. (ACCA ², 2006) [Online] The practice of professional accounting may create loopholes activities which may discredit the profession. Independent of profession accountants will hard to resolve this situation because the code is difficult enforcing by legally. (ACCA P1, 2008) [Online] Because the IFAC is not in a legislative position, the Code of Ethics contains no formal sanctions. (Hansrudi Lenz, 2008). Therefore, the auditors can choose to accept and comply with such a code without coercion. In such situation, the Code will fail to comply because they appear out-of-touch on ethics as they are unwilling or too busy to take the responsibility. (ACCA P1, 2008) Other than that, the code of ethics consists moral norm in provides guidance to strengthen up independence. Unfortunately, it has been fundamentally questioned about the moral base of the profession. It is neither a pure-lip-service nor a strict self-binding agreement in the sense of the Code of ethics. The independence may fail to maintain via the Code as there are self-binding that create opportunity to transgress a moral norm since independence of mind are difficult to observe. (Hansrudi Lenz, 2008)There is empirical evidence that shows moral norm are useless if the human natural are neither truly altruistic nor truly egoistic of the human behaviour. A selfish person will leave no rooms for moral obligations and maximise self-interest in decisions making which creates the ethical conflict of interest. (Sara Ann Reiter, 2000) 2.2 The IFAC code of ethics for profession accountants is essentially to maintain the principles-based approach in applying the fundamental ethics principles and conceptual framework. The IESBA have highlighted the principles-based approach as vital roles in auditing which gives guidance to resolving conflicts of interest. (ACCA P7, 2007). IFAC are more preferable to principles-based approach rather than rules-based approach as rules-based approach professional conduct and ethics cannot provide for all circumstances. There may result in inappropriate or inadequate safeguards for fundamental principles of ethics when the rules-based approach lead to unquestioning compliance to rules. (Philomena Leung, 2009) In positive aspect, the IFAC code with accordance with principles-based approach provides numerous set of specific rules for each ethical situation that had been identified. There are varied in the nature of engagement and work environment to professional accountants. (Messier, 2006)Therefore, the code with principles-based approach provides suitable guidance for every possible identified situation that involves ethical consideration with compliance with the fundamental principles that are not compromised. It is therefore the principles-based approach is acts as a driver to provide high quality work of audit. (IFACà ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ ¶, 2004) [Online] According to IFAC, external auditors independences are more preferable to principles-based approach because it creates the robust structures and applied to varied and diverse circumstances faced by professional accountants as it is continues to applicable in the rapid change of environment. (IFACà ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ µ, 2010) [Online] As it is applicable to global environment, it helps professional accountants to avoid technical evasion of detailed rules. The Code is more robust and capable of more consistent application as the IFAC code clarifies the absolute restrictions or prohibition. (IFACà ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ ·, 2009) [Online] The principles-based of the Code are potentially very flexible because it provides flexible framework for multi-culture, multi-lingual, and multi-jurisdictional environment. (IFACà ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ ¶, 2004) [Online] This approach also provides best suited to the rapid change in business environment which allows multitude circumstances that may arise in practise. As such, the standards of the Code can be responsive to the changing needs of the public interest and serves better for the requirement and interests for both user and financial markets. (Intosai, no date) [Online] Conversely, principles-based approach in the Code of ethics may have potential drawbacks. Although the Code provides basic principles to guidance, it is however that a lack of precise guidelines may create inconsistencies. (IVSC, 2007) [Online] As there are many similar circumstances to follows, the illustrative examples can be mistakenly interpreted.(ACCA P1,2008) The professional accountants may covey the false impression in descriptions of situation where it may be misguide the work in practise. Hence, they may not establish any basic principles or essential procedures to be followed in audit review, other assurance and related services engagement. (IFACà ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ ¸, 2009) [Online] The Code with principles-based approach does not and cannot capture all ethical circumstances and dilemma unless the professional accountants have very good and clear understanding in the underlying principles. (ACCA P1, 2008) Ethical dilemma can be inevitably occurring when the code cannot be honoured without apparent breach of another. (FIG, 2007) [Online] As there are argue in the regional variations in cultural, social and ethical norms, the IFAC code cannot capture important differences in emphasis in some part of the world. In additional, the Code of ethics is not technically enforceable in any legal manner although there are sanctions exists in breach of the code in some jurisdiction. Therefore, the voluntary and perhaps for the ethical code is less effective. (ACCA ³, no date) [Online] Principles-based approaches are required auditors to exercise or apply judgement because specific audit may apply laws and regulations that impact on the audit objectives. However, it is depends in the ethical conduct of the auditors. (Gary Pflugrath, 2007) Fairness expression are necessary require in the audit opinion which limits of the consistent application. Auditor may not to be able to express unqualified opinion and judgement if there are uncertainties affecting in the financial statement. Materiality by nature or by context may found in consideration. (Intosai ², no date) [Online] 2.3 Other recommendations Apart from Code of ethics, there is support evidence that shows positive relationship between audit committees and auditors independence which means that audit committee can enhance auditors independence. (Nur Barizah Abu Bakar, 2005) Audit Committee is a committee of independent non-executive directors that provide independent point of reference to auditors with view of a companys affairs other than executive directors. By providing additional channel of communication, the audit committee are strengthening the independence of external auditors. (United Nations, 2006) [Online] The audit committee might provide an impartial body for auditors to consult conflict of interest. Audit committee will also lead to increasing public confidence in the credibility and objectivity of financial report. (ACCA P7, 2009) Besides that, audit effectiveness and independently can be raised through audit quality control process. The international Standard on Quality Control (ISQC) further enhancing confidence in independent audit by encourage stakeholders work together with open and constructive dialogue in order to contribute the work of government and regulators by generating practical ideas. (ICEAW ², 2006) [Online]. ISQC also provides guidance for auditor to acquire required capabilities and competences by impose quality control in perform audit and reviews financial statement and other assurance and services engagement. The ISQC require all professional accountants perform all professional responsibilities with integrity and maintain objectivity which gain the publics confidence in the credibility of their work. (Brenda Porter, 2008) In additionally, IFAC also issued the Continuing Professional Education programme (CPE) to enhancing the professional technical skills and competences which help to develop independent of professional accountants. CPE provides high level of training to helps it members acquire the knowledge they need to face the contemporary rigors and challenges of the professional. (MIA, 2007).CPE provides rapid development in legislation, accounting standards and guidelines, technology development and increase public expectations of the services to maintain professional competence and ensure due care at all times. (MIA, 2005) [Online] By developing the higher professional standards and fostering greater sharing information between member and expert of the industry, it geared enhancing the quality of the profession. (MIA, 2007) Conclusion IFAC code of ethics plays an important element for professional accountants to serve public interest. The Code has emphasize the important for external auditors to be independent in provide reasonable assurance engagement. With guidance by the Code, the professional accountants can provide high-quality standards works with access of truthfulness and confidentiality financial reporting. From positive view, the independence can be strengthen up by the code of ethics with comply with the fundamental principles and conceptual of framework which allow professional accounting achieve their objective of accounting profession and maintain competences in practices. Besides that, the code of ethics had been revised in order to strengthen independences requirement. The code also helps in facilitate harmonisation. The code always based on principles-based approach to provide flexible for professional accountants. Principles-based approach in the Code also provides numerous set of guidance for every possible situation. Apart from that, the principles-based approach of IFAC code provides robust structure to many different circumstances. It is also suitable for business environment that rapid in changing to allows multitude circumstances. Whereas from negative view, the Code needs time consuming and cost incurred to absorb the new information, new technologies and knowledge and skills. The Code also creates loopholes from professional accountants which will possible discredit the profession. Independent cannot be strengthening because of pure-lip-service and self-binding agreement that transgress moral norm. The principles-based approach of IFAC Code has some deficiencies. The guidances examples may mistakenly interpret as it is lack of precise guidelines. IFAC Code also does not and cannot capture all ethical circumstances and dilemma. The principles-based approach also requires the professional accountants provides too many judgement which may brings to uncertainties of financial statement. Thus, besides the IFAC code of ethics, the professional accountants are advices to further develop other international standards or regulated body such as audit committee, ISQC and provide CPE to strengthen independent of auditors in providing assurance service.

Is Marxism And Democracy Are Incompatible Politics Essay

Is Marxism And Democracy Are Incompatible Politics Essay Karl Marx is widely thought of as the modern pioneer of the Socialist  movement. His theory of radical social  change through upheaval and class  struggle has undoubtedly left its mark on the history of the world. Countries  such as Russia, Yugoslavia, Albania and Cambodia have all attempted to use his  model of Socialism. There are  some present states such as Cuba, China and North  Korea that would still be considered Communist. The  question of whether or not  Marxism is compatible with democracy is in effect two questions.  Ã‚  First whether  Marxism can be brought  about within a pre-existing democratic framework and secondly whether democracy  can  endure and thrive within a Marxist regime. As  a starting point, it should be noted that there are a number of different  models of Marxism, including many  formulated since the death of Marx.  Ã‚  I will initially focus on the model as  formulated by Marx himself, discussing  some of the conte xt in which he wrote  and then I will then consider different critiques of the models that followed  Marxs writing. The term democracy is made up of the two Latin words Kratos  (which means rule) and demos (which means  by the people). Democracy is  widely defined by five key features: participation through elections, open and  fair  competition for power, avoiding tyranny of either the rulers or the  majority, ensuring accountability of government  and providing a forum for  discussion of political issues.  Whilst there are many different forms of democracy, Marx  wrote extensively on his critique of liberal democracy  and of the menace of Capitalism  in  The Communist Manifesto. Marx  refers to the abolition of the state through  radical change and social  upheaval. This change is needed because Marx contends that laws are made for  and  serve in the interest of the bourgeoisie. He writes the executive of the  modern state is but a committee for  managing the common affairs of the whole  bourgeoisie'[1]and that  the first step in the revolution by the working  class is to raise the proletariat to the position of the ruling class to win  the battle of democracy.[2] As a starting point for a  critique of Marxisms compatibility within a pre-existing democratic framework, it is clear that, for Marx,  winning the  battle of democracy is not about playing within the rules of  democracy. The  radical uprising and  social upheaval he  talks of in  The  Communist Manifesto  involves power being seized by the workers from  the ruling classes by  revolutionary and non-democratic means. Whilst the  Marxist- Leninists of the early 20th  century would say that  this  would be the lesser of two evils and that social harmony would be reached in  the end, the road by which  they achieved this would be undemocratic. Marx talks at length in  The Communist Manifesto  about the means  in which the proletariat would seize the  power. He explains that they would  abolish all private property, income tax, inheritance rights and ultimately the  class system. An aspect of Marxs vision that one could argue is democratic is  the way that he critiques  Capitalism in terms of the way the individual is  suppressed by the employer. He holds that in a truly democratic  society people  would be able to create  what ever they wanted and  that through the abolition of social classes  people would become individuals,  creative and free. In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and  class antagonisms, we shall have an association, in which the free development  of each is the condition for the  free development of all.'[3]  Carol Pearce writes that the desirability of Marxism  lies in  Ã‚  the freedom of the  individual to express their own tastes and perso nality, explore her own  interests, and thus develop her human  potential.[4]  Whilst there are other positive aspects of the Marxist  utopian vision that our modern society would  advocate, such as the abolition of  child labour, the growth of individual freedom and (for some) the state control  of the transport networks, there are many aspects of the Marxist utopian vision  that do not coincide with a truly  democratic society. The question at hand also seeks to discover if democracy can  thrive in a Marxist regime, thus questioning its  compatibility with democracy.  Norman Geras (1987) asserts, it is an axiom that  Socialism should be democratic  [5], but  this assertion is not necessarily true.  It has been argued that Lenins and then Stalins interpretation of the  Marxist vision distorted  the original ideals of Marxism. Stephen Boner  (1990) explains in the chapter  Leninism  and Beyond  that at the time of the Bolshevik October revolution in 1917 the  Bolsheviks believed that democracy  would become the price for a premature  seizure of power under conditions of underdevelopment.[6]  However  Gramsci, an Italian Marxist theorist, primarily saw these events as, a  revolution against Marxs  Capital  [7].  This  is because of the fact that under Lenin there was to be a short cut'[8]  on the road to Socialism. In an ideal social  revolution, Marx explained in  Capital[9],  there would be gradual changes in order to reach true social democracy  but this  was not the case in terms of the October Revolution and critics of Lenins brand  of Communism have  affirmed that there are no short cuts to achieving a true  Marxist society. Lenins successor Stalin  is also interesting to look at when discussing the democratic accountability of  the  Russian Socialist state in the years that followed. Stalins dictatorship  is well known for the cult of personality,  his collectivisation policies, the  mass death (from the famines that followed this policy) and the large-scale  work camps for prisoners (the gulag system) that he created. Whilst Stalinists  would have claimed that this  was being done in the interest of the policy they  called Socialism in one country, which would in the end  strengthen the Soviet  position in the world (with the aim that that the ideals of Socialism would  ultimately  spread), there are clearly many aspects deeply flawed with Stalins  interpretation of Marxism on a  humanitarian level and the consequences that followed. When considering the humanitarian implications of Marxism  it is worthwhile to compare the different forms of  Communism that have emerged  up in the 21st  century. While Lenin focused on the needs of the  working class as  the ruling class the dictatorship of the proletariat Mao in Communist China was concerned with the needs of the  peasantry.  Bernard-Henri Là ©vy, a French New  Philosopher, who became despondent with Marxism (he had  been a Maoist)  said there is: No socialism without camps, no classless society without its  terrorist truth.'[10] Ultimately one could argue  that all forms of Communism leads to the same place, namely that when the political state is  abolished via revolutionary activity and non-democratic means ultimately this  is followed by death, destruction of the people or that of their political  freedoms. Max Weber explains this notion: no ethics in the world can  dodge the fact that in numerous instances the attainment of good ends is  bound to  the fact that one must be willing to pay the price of using morally  dubious means or at least dangerous ones   and facing the possibility of evil  ramification  [11] One of the main reasons one could argue that democracy is not  compatible within a Marxist framework is  because Marxism has never successfully  coexisted with democracy on a large scale. The federation of  communes that Marx  describes in his ideal social democracy is an institution, which under everyone  makes  decisions together a direct democracy. In this collective everyone  would have a say, however it could be  argued that in order for a society to  work you need people with expertise in certain fields or there would be social  chaos and nothing would be achieved.   One of the key events that influenced Marxs political  writings was the French Revolution.  Ã‚  Marx wrote near the  end of the 19th  century and it could be  suggested that it was the events of the hundred years before him that  shaped  many of his ideas. He had been born into time just after an age of democratic  revolution.[12]  The  American, English and French Revolutions had taken place in these years and  the democratic world seemed to  be a plethora of unrest and rebellion. Marx saw  and commented on what had happened at this time. He writes in  The Civil War in France  -part III  (1871) the features by term he  understands democracy. He wrote that the Paris  Commune that took place from 18th  March to 28th  May 1871 where the workers took control was a good  model  of democracy. Anarchists and Marxists are well known to celebrate this  form of direct democracy. One might argue that one of the only truly democratic models  where Marxism has been known to work in the world was within the  Kibbutz in Israel. The Kibbutz  is or at least was a form of Communism in which there are small communities  in  which the people work together for equal pay and for equal share of the  land. Originally these communes were  set up by the Russian refugees in the  early 20th  century many of which who were escaping persecution from  the  Russian Tsarist regime. They set up these communities that were based  around agriculture and with the strict  view that each person would receive a share  of whatever work they put into the community, a lot like Marxism. This  model,  although not entirely Marxist, is based on Marxs ideals of collective  responsibility and is thought of to be  one of the only known models of Marxism  that has successfully incorporated a democratic element, perhaps  because it is on  a small scale. Another way that one can  approach the question of Marxisms compatibility with democracy is to consider the  ways in which Marxism, as a form of social democracy designed by and for the  people, falls short of success.  Schumpter (1965) refers to the idea that  democracy is not an end in itself. The book  Can  Democracy Be  Designed?[13]  looks at the transitions to democracy from different societies and the  intuitional choices that are  made . Stable democratic societies  are  usually the product of natural democratic evolution. In the 1830s the  Peel-  and Pitt-ites who were anti revolutionary would have called it the organic  system of government and  society that works best and that is the most  stable.  Ã‚  Professor Mayo writes that  democratic societies are  economically advanced where the emphasis is on the  rights of the citizen and on freedom and tolerance.  Democracy of this kind has  evolved slowly and is the result of long historical struggles.  [14]  This means that because democracy comes about through slow development, that the violent change and class struggle that is associated with Marx is incompatible with the idea of democracy or it existing after a Marxist revolution. Marxism emphasises the need to restructure the economic  order and the way in which the workers relationship  with the employer is taken  advantage of.  Ã‚  The inconsistency  with democracy therefore lies in terms of taking the  power from the ruling class  and then everything naturally failing into place with democracy after such  radical  social change. This would seem to be  one of the major  problems with democracy and Marxisms compatibility.  Critics of Marxism  have said that the key incompatibility lies in terms when used together.  Ã‚  Joseph V.  Femia  writes, arent the two terms in the title mutually contradictory? Is Marxist  democracy not an oxymoron?'[15]  A  Marxian democracy if one were to exist would simply be a dictatorship of the  proletariat'[16]as Marx called it.  Ã‚  He explains that once the masses have taken control from the  bourgeois parliamentary government that the  dictatorship of the proletariat  has to be cruel, stern, bloody and painful  [17]and that in terms of Lenins legacy it  is difficult  to treat him as a philosopher of freedom'[18] Writer  Francis Fukuyama  (1992)  posits that  liberal  democracy  has continually confirmed to be a more successful  structure than any other system and that the world has entered the final stage of sociological development. He writes, The twentieth century saw the developed world descend into a  paroxysm of  ideological violence which amounted in the Cold War to ,finally an updated  Marxism that threatened  to lead to the ultimate apocalypse of nuclear war.'[19]  Perhaps the concept  that liberal democracies are the finalised and best-developed models of world than  that of Marx is true an extent but his theory falls short in other ways.  Fukuyamas  The End of History and Last of Man  states that the societies are in its final stage of development and that other models that have come before such as Marxism, the World has progressed past. Fukuyama states that ultimately society has reached the end of its development democratically with the end produ ct being what we have today. However one can argue that his suggestions are parochial in the sense that in every society people would have assumed that their understanding and development would be the final knowledge of the world as they knew it. To say that we may have progressed passed Marxism would be one assertion because perhaps due to what we have learnt from the dangers of Communism we have indeed developed past it. However to say that this is the end of history and that we have no more knowledge that will developed from democracies in the world is a narrow perspective no one can ever know what will happen next. This is even more so the case if we look according to what has happened in the world thus far. Usually it is out of the Capitalist or liberal democracies that comes the most revolutionary regimes in society such as Marxism. We can never know what will come next. Since the fall of the  Berlin wall and the end of the Cold War it seems there is a growing importance surrounding  the notion of democratic peace theory.  Democratic peace theory aims to explain  how and why  in the liberal democracies, states that are democratic generally do  not fight each other.[20]  However neo-Marxists such as  Imma nuel Wallerstein who is  a world systems theorist would say that it due to there being a  collective  interest for peace within these countries that world wars and rebellions do not break out. He also says that this is not supposedly to  do with the triumphs of liberal democracy but the fact that it is not in the economic interests of the most powerful countries to be at war. In essence the  question whether Marxism can be brought about and work within a pre-existing  democratic framework  Ã‚  and  if democracy can endure and thrive  within a Marxist regime is one that clashes because the two notions in both cases are incompatible. I think one of the fundamental arguments  in terms of  the apparent  eclipse of socialism is that Socialism has been superseded by other forms of government and ones that are more humanitarian, stable and that have worked for a longer time. Whilst it may be nice in some cases for a there to be direct democracy where people could vote on every issue they wanted to and for and some aspects of Marxism to be applied today, features of it would be impractical. If there were to be a referendum and monthly, weekly or daily commune I doubt this would work very well. Not only would decisions take a long time to be counted, but perhaps you need people in society with certain expertise like the men in parliament who we ent rust our civil liberties with. Not only can the failures of Marxism been seen and the impracticalities of a purely Socialist democracy , but also Marxism can be perceived as outdated. Aspects of the Capitalist world such as the competition that is created in the markets could be argued to be compatible with democracy as there is a genuine choice people face whether or not they enter into this competitive race. Democracy in terms of economics is something that Marx focuses heavily on, whilst seemingly failing to handle the social problems that inevitably arise from radicalism. His utopian vision is one that I believe is inherently incompatible with democracy. [1]  Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (1888)  The Communist Manifesto, Chapter 1, ed David Mc Lellan,  Oxford  Worlds Classics [2]  ibid Chapter 2 [3]  ibid Chapter 2 [4]  Carole Pearce (1991) A Critique of Marxism-Leninism as Theory and  Praxis,  Review of African  Political  Economy,  No. 50, Africa in a New World Order, pp.102-114, Taylor and  Francis Ltd   [5]  Norman Geras,(1987) Post Marxism?,  The New Left Review  163, May-June 1987 [6]  Stephen Eric Boner ,(1990)  Socialism Unbound  ,pg.87, Routledge: New  York [7]  Antonio Gramsci, The Revolution Against Capital in  Selections from Political Writings  1910-1920,  ed. Quinton Hoare, trans. John Mathews (New York, 1977), pp.34ff [8]  Stephen Eric Boner ,(1990)  Socialism Unbound  ,pg.87, Routledge, New  York [9]  Karl Marx (1867)  Capital  Vol. 1 [10]  Bernard-Henry Levy (1979)  Barbarism with a Human Face,  1st ed  ,New York:  Harper   Row, pp.155 [11]  Max Weber (1964) , Politics as a Vocation, in  From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology,  ed  H.H.Gerth and C.W.Mills, New York, 1964 p.121 [12]  R.R Palmer, (1969)  Age of the Democratic Revolution,  The: A Political History of Europe  and  America, 1760-1800: v. 1: Challenge,  Princeton: Princeton University Press [13]  Can Democracy Be Desgined?  (2003),,  Ed .Sunil Bastian and Robin Luckham,  Zed Books, London [14]  H. B. Mayo; Walter Bedell Smith (1957)  Democracy and Marxism  by  The  Philosophical Reviewà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨Vol.  66, No. 2 (Apr., 1957), pp. 268-271 [15]  Joseph V. Femia (1993)  Marxism  and democracy,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚  Oxford University Press: Oxford p.1 [16]  Marx (1852),  Letter to Weydemeyer [17]  Marx  Andrzej  Walicki  Ã‚  (1995)  Marxism and the Leap  to the Kingdom of Freedom  The Rise and Fall  of the Communist Utopia,  Standford Universtiy  Press: Chicago pp.280 [18]  ibid  Ã‚  pp.332 [19]  Fukuyama, Francis  (1992).  The  End of History and the Last Man. London: Penguin. [20]  Daniele  Archibugi(2008)  The Global Commonwealth of Citizens.  Toward Cosmopolitan Democracy,  Princeton University Press: Princeton

Gravity Essay -- essays research papers

Gravity is really an unknown force. We can define it as a field of influence, and that it effects the entire existence of the universe. Some people think that gravity consists of particles called gravitons, which travel at the speed of light. The only thing we do know is how gravity operates in different parts of our universe. Without gravity, there would be no space and time. There is a legend that says that Galileo once dropped two objects off the Leaning Tower of Pisa to show that the heavier of the two objects dropped faster. If a feather and hammer were the two objects he used then obviously the hammer would hit the ground first. This is due to air resistance, which is the force air exerts on a moving object. This force acts in the opposite direction to that of the object's motion. In the case of a falling object, air resistance pushes up as gravity pulls down, which causes the object to slow down. When Galileo's experiment was repeated on the moon, the hammer and the feather hit the ground at the exact same time. This is due to the fact that the moon has no atmosphere. Therefore, air resistance doesn't exist on the moon. Also, the amount of air resistance on an object depends on the speed, size, shape, and density of the object. The larger the surface area of the object, the greater the amount of air resistance on it. This is why feathers, leaves, and sheets of paper fall more slowly than pennies, acorns, and crumpled balls of paper. There is another legend that states that when Newton was lying against a tree in an orchard, he was struck on the head by an apple. He wondered what provided the acceleration for the apple to fall to the ground. Was this a force of the earth on the apple? If so, then the apple must exert a force on the earth according to Newton’s law of action/reaction forces. Newton applied this theory unto the planets, which orbit the sun. He found by studying astronomical data, that the force that held the earth in orbit around the sun was the same force that drew the apple toward the earth. This was the force of gravity that is given by this scary formula: F = Gm1*Gm2 gravity _______ r^2 F equals the force in Newtons, G equals the gravitational constant which is 6.67 * 10^-11 Nm^2 | kg^2, m1 and m2 equal the mass of each body in kilograms, and finally, r equals the distance between the 2 bodies in meters. If all of this i... ...for the electronic revolution of the twentieth century. Electromagnetic waves not only revolutionized our lives, but also our knowledge of the universe. Astronomers gradually opened the electromagnetic spectrum, first using visible light and then radio, x-rays and gamma rays. Each new part of the spectrum provided us with dramatic new insights into the universe. Einstein predicted gravitational waves in 1916. They have not yet been directly detected on earth, although astronomers Joe Taylor and Russell Hulse received the 1993 Nobel Prize for proof of their existence, by showing that a star system is losing energy by producing gravitational waves. Gravitational waves are a completely new spectrum. If electromagnetic waves let us see the universe, gravitational waves will let us hear the universe. They will provide us with a new sense, the sense of hearing, with which to explore the universe. Gravity is a very complicated subject, but scientists are learning more and more about it as time goes on. Contributions from people such as Newton and Einstein helped shape the way we see things today. Without them, no telling what kind of misconceptions we all might believe in today.

Romeo and Juliet - The Movie :: Movie Film comparison compare contrast

Romeo and Juliet - The Movie The new release of Romeo and Juliet is fun, fast and exciting to watch. It is a slick cinematic rendition of Shakespeare's work brought to the screen for contemporary movie-goers. There is something for everyone in this movie. A timeless story, a dynamic cast, a hip soundtrack, great sets and costumes and plenty of action. From the beginning the audience is told," buckle up, this Romeo and Juliet ride is going to be like no other Shakespeare you've ever ridden." This movie supports the notion that the stage is an actor's medium and the cinema is the director's. Romeo and Juliet is a feast for the eyes and does a great job of engaging the audience with the story at all times through various cinematic techniques and tricks which make understanding Shakespeare fun, interesting, fresh and easy. Visually dynamic, and edited with a sense of urgency, most movie-goers will get caught up in the story and forget that they are listening to the Bard. It is Shakespeare's words and text, however, the sights and sounds are as clearly, possibly overshadowing, telling the same parallel story. One could say that there are visually emotional subtitles throughout the movie directing the audience to understand and engage in the most famous love story in an entirely new way. One can argue that this version of Romeo and Juliet would be understood even without spoken words. The camera-work tells the story as clearly as the text. There are very few moments in this movie when the camera stops moving. Like Oliver Stone's Natural Born Killers the editing is fierce and in your face. There is little time to think as the perpetual images flash across the screen. And it works. You become entranced and cannot wait to see what happens next even if you are already familiar with the story. It feels new. Like many contemporary Shakespeare productions, the text has been slightly edited but this does nothing to dilute the story. The dialogue, for the most part, is not delivered by master thespians, rather, we hear contemporary film actors delivering the Bard's words as though this were present day English in New York or Los Angeles.

Tobacco Smoking and Legal Marijuana

Marijuana vs  cigarettes See also: Smoking Marijuana does not cause lung cancer Top anti drug researcher changes his mind: says legalize marijuana Marijuana and your lungs: recent studies Pot is not like tobacco The Effects of Marijuana Smoke There are many reasons why marijuana is  not  worse for you than smoking cigarettes. You may have heard that â€Å"one joint is equal to ten cigarettes† but this is exaggerated and misleading. Marijuana does contain more tar than tobacco — but low tar cigarettes cause just as much cancer, so what is that supposed to mean? Scientists have hown that smoking any plant is bad for your lungs, because it increases the number of ‘lesions’ in your small airways. This usually does not threaten your life, but there is a chance it will lead to infections. Marijuana users who are worried about this can find less harmful ways of taking marijuana like eating or vaporizing. (Be careful – marijuana is safe to eat — but tobacco is not, you might overdose! )  Marijuana does not cause cancer  the way tobacco does, though. Here is a list of interesting facts about marijuana smoking and tobacco smoking: o Marijuana smokers generally don’t chain smoke, nd so they smoke less. (Marijuana is not physically addictive like tobacco. ) The more potent marijuana is, the less a smoker will use at a time. o Tobacco contains nicotine, and marijuana doesn’t. Nicotine may harden the arteries and may be responsible for much of the heart disease caused by tobacco. New research has found that it may also cause a lot of the cancer in tobacco smokers and people who live or work where tobacco is smoked. This is because it breaks down into a cancer causing chemical called `N Nitrosamine’ when it is burned (and maybe even while it is inside the body as well. o Marijuana contains THC. THC is a bronchial dilator, which means it works like a cough drop and opens up your lungs, which aids clearance of smoke and dirt. Nicotine does just the opposite; it makes your lungs bunch up and makes it harder to cough anything up. o There are benefits from marijuana (besides bronchial dilation) that you don’t get from tobacco. Mainly, marijuana makes you relax, which improves your health and well-being. o  Scientists do not really know what it is that causes malignant lung cancer in tobacco. Many think it may be a substance known as Lead 210.Of course, there are many other theories as to what does cause cancer, but if this is true, it is easy to see why  no case of lung cancer resulting from marijuana use alone has ever been documented, because tobacco contains much more of this substance than marijuana. o Marijuana laws make it harder to use marijuana without damaging your body. Water-pipes are illegal in many states. Filtered cigarettes, vaporizers, and inhalers have to be mass produced, which is hard to arrange `underground. ’ People don’t eat marijuana often because you need more to get as high that way, nd it isn’t cheap or easy to get (which is the reason why some people will stoop to smoking leaves. ) This may sound funny to you — but  the more legal marijuana gets, the safer it is. It is pretty obvious to users that marijuana prohibition laws are not â€Å"for their own good. † In addition to the above, legal marijuana would be clean and free from adulterants. Some people add other drugs to marijuana before they sell it. Some people spray room freshener on it or soak in in chemicals like formaldehyde! A lot of the marijuana is grown outdoors, where it may be sprayed with esticides or contaminated with dangerous fungi. If the government really cared about our health, they would form an agency which would make sure only quality marijuana was sold. This would be cheaper than keeping it illegal, and it would keep people from getting hurt and going to the emergency room. (source) FACT: Studies have shown that smoki ng marijuana does NOT increase your chance of getting cancer and may even lower it slightly! Of course, vaping or eating cannabis are still considered the safest methods of ingestion especially for daily consumers. Early on, when our research appeared as if there would be a negative impact on lung health, I was opposed to legalization because I thought it would lead to increased use and that would lead to increased health effects,† Tashkin says. â€Å"But at this point, I’d be in favor of legalization. Tobacco smoking causes far more harm. And in terms of an intoxicant, alcohol causes far more harm. UCLA’s Tashkin studied heavy marijuana smokers to determine whether the use led to increased risk of lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or COPD.He hypothesized that there would be a definitive link between cancer and marijuana smoking, but the results proved otherwise. â€Å"What we found instead was no association and even a suggestion of some p rotective effect,† says Tashkin, whose research was the largest case-control study ever conducted. Listen to Tashkin’s full video  here UPDATE Source  A new study, published in this month’s  Journal of the American Medical Association, tested the lung function of over 5,000 young adults between 18 and 30.After 20 years of testing, researchers found some buzzworthy results:  regular marijuana smokers (defined by up to a joint a day for seven years) had no discernible impairment in lung activity from non-smokers. In fact, researchers were surprised to find marijuana smokers performed slightly better than both smokers and non-smokers on the lung performance test. Why? The most likely explanation seems to be that the act of inhaling marijuana—holding each puff in for as long as possible—is a lot like a pulmonary function test, giving marijuana smokers an edge over their igarette smoking counterparts. For most of human existence, cannabis has bee n considered a medicine. Queen Victoria used it to alleviate her menstrual cramps. Extracts were prescribed by doctors and available at every pharmacy in the U. S. According to  Fast Food Nation  author Eric Schlosser, attitudes toward cannabis only shifted when Americans began to notice and object to its use by immigrants around the turn of the 20th century. More  here